Albedo

The albedo of an object is the extent to which it reflects light, defined as the ratio of reflected to incident electromagnetic radiation . It is a unitless measure indicative of a surface's or body's diffuse reflectivity . The word is derived from albus, a Latin word for "white".

The albedo is an important concept in climatology and astronomy . In climatology it is sometimes expressed as a percentage. Its value depends on the frequency of radiation considered: unqualified, it usually refers to some appropriate average across the spectrum of visible light. In general, the albedo depends on the direction and directional distribution of incoming radiation. Exceptions are Lambertian surfaces, which scatter radiation equally in all directions, so their albedo does not depend on the incoming distribution. In realistic cases, a bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) is required to characterise the scattering properties of a surface accurately, although albedos are a very useful first approximation.

Albedo is also important when observing geoglyphs, particularly geoglyphs in a group in that it can help visual identify (or at least suggest) the differences in age between proximate objects. 

Albedo may also prove to be useful in opening a completely new line of geoglyph research: photographing geoglyphs using thermal imaging to see the minor differences in thermal reflectivity that may present the pattern of a geoglyph where visible light does not.

Wikipedia: Albedo

Archaeology (also spelled: archeology)

1. The scientific study of historic or prehistoric peoples and their cultures by analysis of their artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, and other such remains, esp. those that have been excavated.

2. Rare. ancient history; the study of antiquity.

One of the great things about archaeology is that almost anyone can be an archaeologist.  All it requires is a curious mind, and the willingness to learn a few skills.  But most importantly accept that there is a scientific method that defines how knowledge is obtained, and what how conclusions and theories are proven.  Archaeology is not about fanciful speculation based upon what we would like to believe.  It is about what really is there.  And sometimes, what really is there is far stranger than what a few fantasist would have you believe!

Not all archaeology is about digging in the dirt.  Far from it.  It is also about analyzing what has been found using a variety of approaches, some chemical, some architectural, some design, and come plain old sleuthing.  It is also about connecting the dots in the right order, based upon what is truly there.  But remember, knowledge is constantly advancing, and what is a valid theory one year, may be replaced not long after.  That is the nature of science.

Wikipedia: Archaeology

Archaeological Fantasy

It is always valid to ask questions about any subject of science.  Especially true of archaeology, since the interpretations many times depend upon Interpretive Theories.  However, hypothesis and theory must be support by facts.  But challenging theory and facts is fundamental to advancing science, but again, a challenge must be based upon fact, and testable (provable) in its own right. 

Fantasy is altogether a different thing.  It is where the facts in total are ignored in favor of a subset of facts, or just speculation, to "prove" a new or different interpretation.  Fantasy and speculation are a natural reaction, but must never be confused with science.

• An example of Archaeology Fantasy gone wild! (in Spanish)

• Erick von Daniken's website

For more archaeological definitions visit:

• Archaeological Glossary

• reference-wordsmith.com  

Wikipedia: Fantasy

Arte rupestre is a generic term for rock art (petroglyphs and pictographs).  Generally, they are found on rock faces (such as the Palpa petroglyphs), or in caves.

Wikipedia (Spanish): Arte Rupestre

BCE or B.C.E. (sometimes also used ACE) stands for Before the Current Era, Common Era (the modern era) the alternative to using the religious Before Christ (B.C.) (or A.C. in Spanish).

Biomorph (see Zoomorph)

Expands upon the definition of Zoomorph to include any life form (such as plants).

Wikipedia: Morph

CE or C.E. stands for Current Era, Common Era (the modern era) the alternative to using the religious Anno Domini (A.D.) (or D.C. in Spanish).

The Chachapoyas, also called the Warriors of the Clouds, were an Andean people living in the cloud forests of the Amazonas region of present-day Peru . The Incas conquered their civilization shortly before the arrival of the Spanish in Peru. When the Spanish arrived in Peru in the 16th century, the Chachapoyas were one of the many nations ruled by the Inca Empire. Their incorporation into the Inca Empire had not been easy, due to their constant resistance to the Inca troops.

Wikipedia: Chachapoya

The Chavín, a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. The Chavín civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.

Arising in the Andean highlands of north central Peru around the same timeframe as the Olmecs in Central America, the Chavin Culture was from 1200 to 200 BCE. The Chavins also revered a jaguar man god. Distinctive jaguar designs were found on the bone and stone carvings, the metal work, and the textiles of the Chavin. Their main city and the center of Chavin urban and ceremonial culture was Chavin de Huantar.

Besides the developed agricultural systems found at this site, there was also a central building called The Castillo. The building most likely served as a religious hub for the Chavin since it was ornamented with intricately designed stone reliefs and sculptures of birds, animals, and humans. For about 500 years the Chavin dominated Peruvian culture, and, skillful artisans in their outposts in the northern Peruvian coastal valleys at Cupisnique, Chongoyape, and Tembladera, produced effigy pots with elaborate designs.

Wikipedia: Chavín culture

Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru, beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD. Chimor was the largest kingdom in the Late Intermediate period, encompassing 1000 km of coastline and including up to 2/3 of the people of the Andes. The greatest surviving ruin of this civilization is the mud city of Chan Chan .  The Chimú grew out of the remnants of the Moche culture. The first valleys seem to have joined forces willingly, but Sican was acquired through conquest. They also were significantly influenced by the Cajamarca culture and the Huari. According to legend the capital Chan Chan was founded by Taycanamo who arrived in the area by sea.

Chimor was the last kingdom that had any chance of stopping the Inca. But the Inca conquest was begun in the 1470s by Tupac Inca , defeating to the local emperor Minchancaman , descendant of Tacaynamo, and was nearly complete when Huayna Capac assumed the throne in 1493 AD.

Their ceramics are all black. They are also known for their exquisite and intricate metal-working.

Wikipedia: Chimor

The Chimú were the residents of Chimor with its capital at the city of Chan Chan , a large adobe city, in the Moche valley of Trujillo , Peru . The Inca ruler Tupac Inca Yupanqui led the campaign which conquered just fifty years before the arrival of the Spanish in the region. Spanish chroniclers were able to record accounts of Chimú culture from individuals who had lived before the Inca conquest. Archaeological evidence suggest that Chimor grew out of the remnants of the Moche culture; early Chimú pottery had some resemblance to Moche pottery. Their ceramics are all black and their metalwork is very detailed and intricate.

The Chimu were also known for worshiping the moon, unlike the Inca who worshiped the sun. The Chimu viewed the sun as a destroyer. This is likely due to the harshness of the sun in the desert environment they lived in.

The Chimú are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper, gold, silver, bronze, and tumbago (copper and gold). The pottery is often in the shape of a creature, or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle. The shiny black finish of most Chimú pottery is not achieved by using glazes, but instead is achieved by firing the pottery at high temperatures in a closed kiln which prevents oxygen from reacting with the clay.

The largest pre-Columbian city of the Chimu Culture from 100 to 1470 ACE was Chan Chan. The capital of the Chimu, the city had about ten thousand dwellings of various sizes. About 50,000 people lived at the large site which was north of Trujillo. Chan Chan had canals, storage bins, temples, walk-in wells, and workshops.

The functional and organizational orientation of the Chimu culture resulted in rather lackluster, unoriginal artwork in comparison to other Peruvian cultures. Chimu pottery consisted mainly of blackware which was made using simple methods of production. Their metallurgy, however was highly developed.

Frieze designs were molded into the mud walls of buildings, and the most important ones were covered with layers of precious metals. Before the Chimu were conquered by the Incas around 1460 ACE, their influence stretched along the coast from the Gulf of Guayaquil to Chancay.

Wikipedia: Chimu

Editor's Note: In developing this website, we struggled with how and where to discuss von Daniken.  Not because he is an Archaeological Fantasist, but because he has made a significant contribution to science and the study of the Nanza geoglyphs.  While his contribution is, in some ways minimal, his impact has been massive, because it has introduced the geoglyphic symbols of the Nazca plain to millions the world over.  Without this massive public relations campaign, the public's interest in the Nazca lines, and archaeology in general would be far less.  So we say thank you to Erick for his spirit of adventure, and thirst for understanding, regardless of his fantastic speculations.  However, let us not forget, Erich believes aliens are responsible for these massive human accomplishments!

Erich Anton Paul von Däniken (b. Zofingen, Aargau, Switzerland, April 14, 1935) is a controversial Swiss author best known for his books which examine speculation for extraterrestrial influences on early human culture. Von Däniken is one of the key figures responsible for popularizing the ancient astronaut hypotheses and archaeological fantasy as a movement.

Wikipedia: von Daniken

Geoglyph

McGuinnessPublishing is a financial supporter of the work of the International Geoglyph Registry. We encourage both the public and scientists to register both current and future geoglyph discoveries with the registry.  By registering geoglyphs we can both better understand the scope of our cultural treasures, and help in protecting their futures!               more info »

A geoglyph is a work of rock art that was made from moving or arranging stones or earth across a landscape. Geoglyphs also can be carved into a hillside exposing bedrock; these types of geoglyphs are called chalk giants.  The Nazca geoglyphs expose the soil under the desert pavement.  Other kinds of geoglyphs are made by collecting and piling stones into patterns.  You could consider crop circles and corn mazes as examples of modern geoglyphs.

Another definition: Any ground-constructed example of rock art, such as intaglios or rock alignments; straight lines, geometric shapes, and other representative designs found on the desert plain. Geoglyphs can be formed by piling up materials on the ground surface or by removing surface materials and most suggest a largely ceremonial function.

Wikipedia: Geoglyph

Grave robbers, looters, destroyers of archaeological sites.  Typically, these are poor locals who plunder to make a living by digging up unexplored archaeological sites and trafficking in what ever looted artifacts are found.  Some estimate that as much as 50% of Peru's ancient wealth has been plundered.

The Wari (Spanish Huari) was a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the Andes in the south of modern-day Peru , from about 500 to 1200 A.D. The capital city of the same name is located near the modern city of Ayacucho , Peru. This city was the center of a civilization that covered much of the highlands and coast of modern Peru. Early on, their territory expanded to include the ancient oracle center of Pachacamac, though it seems to have remained largely autonomous. Then later it expanded to include much of the territory of the earlier Moche and later Chimu cultures. The best-preserved remnants of the Huari Culture exist near the town of Quinua at the Wari Ruins . Also well-known are the Wari ruins of Pikillaqta ("Flea Town") a short distance south-east of Cuzco en route to Lake Titicaca , which date from the Wari period before the Incas rose to power in the region.

The Wari are historically important for a number of reasons. They were contemporaries of the Tiwanaku and shared similar artistic styles. Contact between the two cultures appears to have been limited to a span of 50 years in which there was sporadic fighting over a mine first occupied by the Tiwanaku. The mine straddled the border between the two cultures' spheres of influence and the Wari attempted, but failed, to secure it for themselves.  Not much is known about their government, as they did not leave behind any written records.  The Wari state established architecturally distinctive administrative centers in many of its provinces. Some 300 years after the Wari empire collapsed, the Incas became the dominant power in the Andean region.  The Wari terraced field technology was adopted by the Incas when they began a major push to improve the agricultural productivity of their lands. The Wari had a major road network set up throughout their sphere of influence, which may have become part of the Inca road system .

The native language of the Wari area in recent times has been Quechua , though the comparative and historical study of the Andean languages suggests that the language of the Wari culture may have been a form of Aymara . The Wari culture is not to be confused with the modern ethnic group and language known as Wari', with which it has no known link.  The Wari had access to many natural resources, including minerals, fish, cotton, and wool. This is perhaps why the Wari civilization was comparatively so successful. The Wari was a great empire and though the Inca Empire is more well-known, the Wari lasted four times as long and it may have been the reason that the Inca Empire had cultural unification. During the time of the Wari Empire, the people put an end to cultural regionalism and began cultural unification.

Centered around Lake Titicaca, the Huari (Wari) Culture from 750 to 1000 ACE shared an iconography and a religion with the Tiahuanacu, but, were not connected with them either economically or socially. The Huari were a warrior society that ended Peruvian regionalism and set the stage for future cultural unification by the Incas.

Although Huari ceramics were more solidly constructed than sophisticated, their intrepid motifs were richly colored in black, cream, orange, red, violet, and white on a background of black, cream, or red. Effigy jars and double spouted, bridge jars were decorated with both stylized and realistic plant shapes, as well as, human and animal figures. Full bodied running felines were particularly popular. The coastal Huari culture also made colorful ponchos and other high quality textiles patterned after these pottery designs.

Wikipedia: Huari/Wari

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a proposal intended to explain certain facts or observations - it is speculative, but supported by facts.  A hypothesis is not a proven fact or certainty, just a framework.  It is also a tentative theory about the subject of study; a concept that is not yet verified but that if true would explain certain facts or phenomena; a scientific hypothesis that survives experimental testing becomes a scientific theory.

Holding their capital at the great cougar-shaped city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu (in Quechua), or "the land of the four regions," the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000 kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.

Wikipedia: Inca Empire

The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru 1,500–2,000 years ago. The heritage of the Moche comes down to us through their elaborate burials, recently excavated by UCLA's Christopher Donnan in association with the National Geographic Society .

As skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway peoples, like the Maya. Almost everything we know about the Moche comes from their ceramic pottery with carvings of their daily lives. The Larco Museum of Lima, Peru has an extensive collection of these ceramics. We know from these records that they practiced human sacrifice, had blood-drinking rituals, and other practices.

The Moche (Mochica) were a militaristic culture from 200 BCE to 700 ACE named after a river that flows into the ocean south of Trujillo. As the Moche thrived along the northern Peruvian coast, there was a gradual overall improvement in their architecture, ceramics, metalwork, and textiles. Despite the fact that they were a society of warriors, the Moche were also proficient artisans and metallurgists, noted for their realistic sculptures and descriptive drawings that portrayed human emotions.

Their pottery was often decorated with stylized scenes from their military and religious life, legendary motifs, geometric patterns, and their esteemed feline deity. The Moche also wore gold and silver ornaments inlaid with lapis lazuli and turquoise. Using their highly developed architectural skills, the Moche constructed two large, terraced, platform pyramids at their main ceremonial site, using sun backed bricks.

Wikipedia: Moche    

The Nazca culture flourished in the Nazca region between 300 BC and 800 AD. They created the famous Nazca lines and built an impressive system of underground aqueducts that still function today. Near the aqueducts open to tourists, there is an overlook point which includes an Inca building added after the Inca conquest of the area. On the pampa, on which the Nazca lines were made, the ceremonial city of Cahuachi (1-500 AD) sits overlooking the lines. Modern knowledge about the culture of the Nazca is built upon studying the city of Cahuachi.

The Nazca culture from 400 BCE to 600 ACE developed technologically refined, polychromatic ceramics with stirring symbolic images. Bowls, beakers, and spout jars painted with designs of birds, fish, fruits, and mythological figures in three to eight colors were common with black, brown, gray, red, yellow, white, and violet being the favorite color choices. Similar line drawings of  birds, fish, monkeys, plants, spiders, and a whale have been etched across more than 800 miles of desert ground.

The full import of the geoglyphs remains somewhat of an enigma. Although the true meaning of the Nazca lines might not be readily apparent, some of the pieces of the Andean puzzle are decipherable like the straight lines which were sacred pathways used to bring water. Perhaps the geoglyph patterns were an artistic form of Nazca storytelling, similar to hieroglyphs or cave paintings of ancient truths and events.

Wikipedia: Nazca Culture

On the northern coast of present-day Peru, Norte Chico was a cluster of large-scale urban settlements with emerged around 3000 BCE (contemporary with urbanism's rise in Mesopotamia) and declined around 1800 BCE. Caral, in the Supe valley, is one of the largest and best studied sites.

Wikipedia: Norte Chico

Pampa is a native word for a wide flat plain.  Pampa is most commonly connected with Argentina's vast grassland pampas.  However, in the Peruvian (or Chilean) context, a pampa typically refers to the coastal desert plains or plateaus.

Desert burial tombs found by archaeologists in the Paracas necropolis, contained mummies wrapped in layers of perfectly preserved textiles with elaborate graphic designs and embroidery. Paracas effigy pots exhibited the distinctive feline deity symbology of the Chavin, but, their double spouted, round bottom pottery was shaped differently than the northern coastal pottery. Overall the decorative Paracas ceramics were intricately designed and vibrantly multicolored. The Paracas culture, however, was most renown for its uniquely superb and matchless textile weavings.

Petroglyph

Any design, picture, or writing carved or chipped into a rock surface. The technique involved in producing the petroglyph usually was incising, carving, pecking, or pounding.

Wikipedia: Petroglyph

A petrosomatoglyph is an image of parts of a human or animal body incised in rock.  The term "petrosomatoglyph" should not be confused with "petroglyph", which covers all incised representations of living or non-living things, or with "pictograph", which is an image drawn or painted on a rock face, and both of which contribute to the wider and more general category of rock art. Petroforms, or patterns and shapes such as labyrinths and mazes made by many large rocks and boulders in rows over the ground, are also quite different.

Stylized representations of parts of the body are often open to dispute and are therefore on the fringes of acceptability as identifiable petrosomatoglyphs. Natural objects, such as rock crystals and rock formations which look like petrosomatoglyphs; whole animals, plants, etc. are collectively called 'mimeoliths'.

Wikipedia: Petrosomatoglyph

Petroforms, or also known as boulder outlines, or boulder mosaics, are human-made shapes and patterns of rocks on the open ground. Petroforms include a rock cairn or inukshuk , an upright monolith slab, a medicine wheel , a fire pit , a desert kite , or simply rocks lined up or stacked for various reasons. Old World petroforms include the Carnac stones and many other megalithic monuments.  A geoglyph can be formed by a petroform, such as the ceremonial spirals in Canto Grande.

Wikipedia: Petroform

A "pictograph", which is an image drawn or painted on a rock face

A pictogram (also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a symbol representing a concept, object, activity, place or event by illustration. Pictography is a form of writing whereby ideas are transmitted through drawing. It is a basis of cuneiform and, to some extent, hieroglyphs , which uses drawings also as phonetic letters or determinative rhymes.

Early written symbols were based on pictograms (pictures which resemble what they signify) and ideograms (pictures which represent ideas). They were used by the ancient Chinese culture since around 5000 BC and began to develop into logographic writing systems around 2000 BC, as well as by the Maya and Aztec cultures, and through the Andean cultures. Pictograms are still in use as the main medium of written communication in some non-literate cultures in Africa, The Americas, and Oceania. Pictograms are often used as simple symbols (such as computer icons (smilies)) by most contemporary cultures.

Wikipedia: Pictograph

In geology and earth science, A plateau, also called a high plateau or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting of relatively flat rural area.

Wikipedia: Plateau

Precolumbian (pre-Columbian or Pre-Columbian or Precolombino)

A term used to describe the period in the Americas before European contact. pre-Columbian civilization refers to the aboriginal American Indian cultures that evolved in Mesoamerica and the Andean region prior to Spanish exploration and conquest in the 16th century.

A question of spelling:  The term is derived from Christopher Columbus, meaning literally before Columbus.  However, common usage is altering the term from its rigid spelling of "pre-Columbus" into a more generic "Precolumbus".  In this, and other websites, we use the two forms interchangeably, with do difference in definition, primarily for ease of search identification, and consistency with common (American) practice.

Wikipedia: Precolumbian

Provenance

The detailed (partial or complete) history of where an artifact has been since its creation.

Wikipedia: Provenance

Provenience

The precise location where an artifact or archaeological sample was recovered archaeologically.

Theory

The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion.

It is basically any scientific explanation that has been widely tested and accepted; also, plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.

In common usage, people often use the word theory to signify a conjecture, an opinion, or a speculation. In this usage, a theory is not necessarily based on facts; in other words, it is not required to be consistent with true descriptions of reality. True descriptions of reality are more reflectively understood as statements which would be true independently of what people think about them. In this usage, the word is synonymous with hypothesis. This common usage of theory leads to the common but misguided and incorrect statement "It's not a fact, it's only a theory."

In practice, a theory is treated as factual, if supported by fact.   

General Analogy / General Theory

An analogy used in archaeological interpretation based on broad and generalized comparisons that are documented across many cultural traditions. The broadest level of archaeological theory, referring to frameworks that describe and attempt to explain cultural processes that operated in the past.

Interpretive Theory

Any theory that says ancient thoughts, beliefs, motivations, and feelings may sometimes be recovered from the archaeological record.

Tiwanaku (Spanish spellings: Tiahuanaco and Tiahuanacu) is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in Bolivia . Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the 12 000 year ancient city (the oldest city in the world discovered to this date)are near the south-eastern shore of Lake Titicaca , about 72 km (44 miles) west of La Paz, Bolivia - 16°33′17″S, 68°40′24″W.  Some have hypothesized that Tiwanaku's modern name is related to the Aymara term "taypikala", meaning "stone in the center". However, the name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants has been lost, as the people of Tiwanaku had no written language.

The site of Tiwanaku was founded in approximately 200 BC as a small agriculturally-based village, with a number of similar neighbors. The high altitude Titicaca Basin required the development of a distinctive farming technique known as "raised-field" agriculture, which are only found in today's South America as experimental, government-funded projects. In antiquity, they comprised a significant percentage of the agriculture in the region, along with irrigated fields, pasture, terraced fields and cocha (small lake) farming. Artificially raised planting mounds (known as "suka kollus" in the local Aymara language) are separated by canals filled with water. The canals supply moisture for growing crops, but they also absorb heat from solar radiation during the day. This heat is gradually emitted during the bitterly cold nights, providing thermal insulation. Over time, the canals also were used to farm edible fish, and the resulting canal sludge was dredged for fertilizer. The use of various agricultural techniques allowed local communities to grow and population to increase.  Though labor-intensive, suka kollus produce impressive yields. While traditional agriculture in the region typically yields 2.4 metric tons of potatoes per hectare, and modern agriculture (with artificial fertilizers and pesticides) yields about 14.5 metric tons per hectare, suka kollu agriculture yields an average of 21 tons per hectare. 

Significantly, the experimental fields recreated in the 1980s by Kolata and Rivera suffered only a 10% decrease in production following a 1988 freeze that killed 70-90% of the rest of the region's production. This kind of protection against killing frosts in an agrarian civilization is an invaluable asset. For these reasons, the importance of suka kollus cannot be overstated.  The community grew to urban proportions between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important regional power in the southern Andes. According to early estimates, at its maximum extent, the city covered approximately 5.0 square kilometers, and had as many as 40,000 inhabitants. However, satellite imaging was used recently to map the extent of suka kollus remains across the three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, arriving at population-carrying capacity estimates of anywhere between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people (or more narrowly, the proposed population range is between 570,000 and 1,111,500).

Tiwanaku's unique art style is found in vast areas covering modern highland Bolivia , Peru and Argentina . It is difficult to tell, however, whether these areas were part of an empire in the political sense, under cultural and commercial influence, or independent trading partners.  Tiwanaku collapsed around AD 1000, possibly due to environmental reasons, from an invasion of new people from the south, a loss of faith in the Tiwanaku religion, or a combination of all three. The area around Tiwanaku was not abandoned, but the city fell into decay and its characteristic art style vanished.

More:

Although the Peruvian-Bolivian altiplano basin in the Lake Titicaca region is now inhabited by a large population of Aymara Indians who are subsistence farmers, the statues and monolithic remains of Tiahuanaco bear silent testimony to the prior existence of a technologically advanced culture in the region. The site of the remains, which was located about twelve miles south of the southern tip of Lake Titicaca, at an altitude of 13,300 feet, predates the arrival of the Incas. Some archaeologists think that they are the oldest ruins in the world and that Tiahuanaco was once a thriving port of call. They speculate that since the site is now about 800 feet above the edge of the lake that the waters must have dropped 800 feet and receded for about 12 miles.

The uniqueness of the Tiahuanaco people has been amply illustrated by the stone sculptures, by the "Gate of the Sun Portal" carved from a single block of stone, and the rectangular thirty feet wide "Kalasasaya Stone Steps". About a mile from the site at an area called "Puma Punku", there are gigantic bluish gray stones that have a reddish rust covering most of them and produce a metallic ringing sound when tapped. Archaeologists believe that they were most likely toppled thousands of years ago during a cataclysmic global flood and/or eruption of the Andes mountains.

The storytellers of the Indians of the Lake Titicaca region told legends about stone structures beneath the lake waters, which explorers searched for unsuccessfully. Then in 1980 ACE, Hugo Boero Rojo, a Bolivian scholar, guided by information from the local Indians, located monumental ruins with stone roads and temples built from gigantic blocks of stone about 15-20 meters beneath the surface of the lake off the coast of Puerto Acosta, Bolivia. Rojo concluded that the findings indicated the existence of an advanced pre-Columbian civilization long before the arrival of the Spaniards. Some "archaeologists" have placed the timeframe for the Tiahuanaco culture at more than 12,000 years before the present era (however this is subject to significant debate).

From analysis of the arrangement of the geometrical elements on the Calendar Gate, researchers have surmised that the original inhabitants of Tiahuanaco divided the circle both mathematically and astronomically. They knew trigonometry and how to measure angles and their functions. They were also able to calculate squares, square roots, and fractions. Although they do not appear to have used the duodecimal system, the number 11 and multiples of the number 11 frequently occurred. The Calendar Gate was an artistic masterpiece noted for the precision of its design. Different symbols were used to show sunrise, noon, and sunset solar eclipses. The calendar also gave other astronomical and geographical information including: the beginning of the year, the days of the equinoxes and solstices, and the latitude of Tiahuanaco.

Centered around Lake Titicaca, the Tiahuanacu culture from 200 to 500 ACE (which was a significant urban complex during the classical period with highly refined ceramics), might have collapsed during a global climatic shift which increased the aridity in the area. The religious imagery of their austerely stylized artwork defined their decorative motifs.

One very speculative hypothesis suggests that "since the monumental buildings and monolithic statues of Tiahuanaco have been dated as far back as 12,000 BCE (unconfirmed scientifically), it is likely that the much later Tiahuanacu culture merely embellished the existing stone structures and 20 feet high statues with their own mythic symbolism and decorative detailing. Any new structures the Tiahuanacu culture constructed would have been less architecturally advanced buildings made from rapidly deteriorating materials".

Wikipedia: Tiwanaku

Raised beds and waru waru cultivation:  This technology is based on modification of the soil surface to facilitate water movement and storage, and to increase the organic content of the soil to increase its suitability for cultivation. This system of soil management for irrigation purposes was first developed in the year 300 B.C., before the rise of the Inca Empire. It was later abandoned as more technically advanced irrigation technologies were discovered. Nevertheless, in 1984, in Tiawanaco, Bolivia, and Puno, Peru, the system was re-established. It is known in the region as Waru Warn, which is the traditional Indian (Quechua) name for this technique.

The technology is a combination of rehabilitation of marginal soils, drainage improvement, water storage, optimal utilization of available radiant energy, and attenuation of the effects of frost. The main feature of this system is the construction of a network of embankments and canals, as shown in Figure 32. The embankments serve as raised beds for cultivation of crops, while the canals are used for water storage and to irrigate the plants. The soils used for the embankments are compacted to facilitate water retention by reducing porosity, permeability, and infiltration. Infiltration in the clay soils of the region varies from 20% to 30% of the precipitation volume. Thus, clay soils are preferred for this purpose. Sandy soils have too great a porosity to retain the water within the beds.

The cultivation takes place in the "new" soils within the raised bed created by the construction of the embankment. Within the bed, the increased porosity of the new soils results in enhanced infiltration, often increasing infiltration by 80% to 100% of the original soil. This system permits the recycling of nutrients and and all the other chemical and biological processes necessary for crop production. Water uptake by the raised beds is through diffusion and capillary movements using water contained within the beds or supplied from the surrounding canals. The soils are kept at an adequate moisture level to facilitate the cultivation of plants such as potatoes and quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa). Thermal energy is captured and retained in the soil as a result of the enhanced moisture levels, which protect the soils of the bed from the effects of frost. The system acts as a thermoregulator of the microclimate within the bed.

Zoomorph

Zoomorphism, from the Greek ζωον (zōon), meaning animal, and μορφη (morphē), meaning shape or form. It is defined as:

1. The representation of deities as animals or the attributing of animal characteristics to them.
2. The use of animal figures in art and design or of animal symbols in physical medium.

Wikipedia: Zoomorph